NCERT Class-11|| World History (Mizo Explanation)...
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Prepared by Elisa Lalrinngheta
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CHAPTER 1: WRITTING AND CITY LIFE
Mesopotamia khawpui ropui tak awmna hi Euphrates leh Tigris luite inkara ram, tunah Republic of Iraq pêng lo ni ta hi ani. Mesopotamia hnamzia hi a hausakna, khawpui nun, lehkhabu tam tak leh ropui tak tak te, a mathematics leh astronomy te avangin hriat lar a ni. Mesopotamia ziak dan leh lehkhabu te hi 2000 BCE hnuah chhim lam Mediterranean, northern Syria, leh Turkey ah te a darh chhuak a, chuvang chuan chu bial vela ramte chuan an inbiakpawh nan, leh Egypt lal Pharoah nen pawh, Mesopotamia tawng leh ziak dan hmangin an inbiakna an nei thin a ni. Hetah hian khawpui nun leh ziak inzawmna kan en ang, chumi hnuah ziak dan hman uar takin a hrin chhuah thenkhat kan en bawk dawn ani.
Hmanlai hiam, ram chu, a bik takin khawpui nuna khat chhim lam (a hnuai discussion en rawh), chu Sumer leh Akkad tih a ni thin. 2000 BCE hnuah, Babylon khawpui pawimawh a lo nih chuan, Babylonia tih chu chhim lam bial tan hman a ni thin. Kum 1100 BCE vel atang khan, Assyrian hnamten hmar lama an ram an din hnuah, chu bial chu Assyria tih a lo ni ta a ni. Ram tawng hmasa ber hriat theih chu Sumerian a ni. Chu chu Akkadian tawngin a thlak chhunzawm ta zel a, kum 2400 BCE vel khan Akkadian tawng hmangtu te an lo thlen khan. He tawng hi Alexander hun (336-323 BCE) vel thleng khan a lar hle a, bial thenkhatah danglamna tlem a awm bawk a ni. Kum 1400 BCE atang khan, Aramaic pawh a lo lut ve zel a. He tawng hi Hebrew tawng nen a inang a, kum 1000 BCE hnuah a lar hle a ni. Tunah pawh Iraq ram thenkhatah an la hmang a ni.
Archeology ten Mesopotamia zawn hna hi kum 1840s ah khan an tan a. Hmun khat emaw pahnihah emaw (Uruk leh Mari telin, a hnuai kan sawi ang), hna hi rei tak an thawk a ni. (India rama hmun reng rengah hetiang project rei tak hi a la awm ngai lo.) Mesopotamia in te, milem te, cheibawlna te, thlan te, hmanrua te, leh seal te chu a bulthut atan kan zir thei mai bakah, ziak document sang tam tak a awm bawk a ni.
Mesopotamia hi Europe mite tan a pawimawh a, Bible hmasa lam, Old Testament a an sawi tel thin vang a ni. Entirnan, Old Testament a Genesis bu chuan Shimar, Sumer tihna, chu brick hmanga sak khawpui ram angin a sawi a ni. Europe atanga zin mite leh zir mite chuan Mesopotamia hi an thlahtute ram ang deuhin an en a, leilung chhuak zawn hna an tan chuan, Old Testament a thu te chu a dikzia prove an tum a ni.
Q.I hria em 🤔?
Mesopotamia tih hming hi Greek tawng mesos atanga lak ani a, a awmzia chu a laiah(centre), leh potamos, awmzia chu lui atanga lak a ni.
Bible-a a sawi danin, Tuilêt khan khawvel a thil nung zawng zawng tihboralna tura ruahman ani tih kan hmu a. Nimahsela, Pathianin Tuilêt hnuah nunna a awm theih nan Noah-a, mipa pakhat a thlang a. Noah-an lawng lian tak a siam a. Ramsa leh sava chi hrang hrang, an hriat theih chin zawng zawng atangin pakhat theuh a hruai a, chungte chuan Tuilêt chu an lo tuar chhuak a ni. Mesopotamia hnam hrang hrangah pawh chutiang chiah chanchin ngaihnawm tak a awm a, chu mi hmahruaitu chu Ziusudra emaw Utnapishtim emaw an ti a ni.
MAP 1: West Asia
ACTIVITY 1:
Hnam hrang hrang tam takin tuilêt chanchin an nei a. Chungte chu history-a thil pawimawh tak thleng, hriatrengna vawn that leh sawina kawng pakhat a ni thin. Chungte chu chhui chhuak la, tuilêt hmaa nun leh a hnu lama nun an sawi dan chu ziak rawh.
Kum zali sawm pakua tawp lam atang khan Mesopotamia hmasa lam chhui chhuah chakna chu a reh thei tawh lo. Kum 1873 khan, British chanchinbu pakhat chuan British Museum-a Tuilêt chanchin, Bible-a sawi, awmna lehkha chuanna, chhui chhuahna turin sum an pe a.
Kum 1960 bawr velah chuan, Thuthlung Hlui chanchinte chu a tak tak a ni lo va, history-a thil pawimawh tak thleng, hriatrengna sawina kawng pakhat a ni zawk mai thei tih an ring ta a. Tichuan, archaeological chhui chhuah dan chu a changkangin,a thain a lo hlawhtling zual sauh va. Chu mai bakah, zawhna hrang hrang, mi naran te nun chhui chhuahna telin, an ngaihtuahna a kal ta zel a. Bible chanchin te a tak tak a ni tih chianna chu a hnufual ta deuh va. He zirlaia kan sawi tur tam zawk hi chung hnu lama zir chianna atanga lo piang chhuak a ni.
✅Mesopotamia leh a Geography
Iraq ram hi boruak leh hmun hrang hrang awmna a ni a. Chhim leh hmar inkarah chuan phul hring, tlang inhnaih deuh te, thing buk hmun te, lui tui thiang te leh pangpar ram te a awm a, ruah pawh a tam tawk hle a, thlai chin theihna a ni. Hetah hian, thing leh thlai chin hna chu kum 7000 leh 6000 BCE inkarah khan an tan a. Hmar lamah chuan tlang ram, steppe an tih mai, a awm a, chutah chuan thlasik ruahsur hnuah, beram leh kel ten hnim leh thingbuk te an ei a, thlai chin aiin ransa vulh chu eizawnna atan a tha zawk a ni. Chhak lamah chuan, Tigris lui puite chuan kawng hrang hrang a siam a.Iraq a hmun sang lam, tlang ramah pawh inbiakna a awm. Chhim lam chu thlaler a ni a, hetah hian khawpui hmasa ber leh ziak hmasa ber a lo piang (a hnuai ami en rawh). He thlaler hian khawpuite a din theih chhan chu, hmar lam tlang atanga luang chhuak, Euphrates leh Tigris luite chuan chirh (fine mud) tam tak an rawn len vang a ni. An liam emaw, an tui huan lama luhtir emaw hian, chirh tha tak a lo awm thin.
📝MAP 2: Mesopotamia: Tlangte, Steppe, Thlaler, Tui pekna hmun (Irrigated), Chhim lam hmun (Zone of the South:
Euphrates luiin thlaler a luh hnuah, a tui chu tui lian lo zawkah a luang darh a. Heng tui lian lo zawk hian an kamahte an liam a, hmanlaiin tui pekna kanal angin an thawk: buh, barli, peas, emaw lentil huanah te mamawh hunah tui luhtir theih a ni. Hmanlai tui pek dan zawng zawngah, Roman Empire (Theme 3) telin, chhim lam Mesopotamia aia thlai thar hlawk zawk an awm lo, ruah tui an dawng tlem chungin.
Thlai chin bakah, Mesopotamia beram leh kel, steppe hmun, hmar-chhak phai leh tlang mual (luite liam pha lo leh leilung tihausa pha lo hmun) a cheng thinte chuan sa, bawnghnute (bawng ani kher lo aw- milk sawina🤣) leh hmul tam tak an thar chhuak. Chu bakah, luiteah sangha a awm a, date-palms kungin nipui laiin rah a pe thin. Amaherawhchu, khawpuite hi thingtlang hausakna avanga lo ding mai niin i lo ngai palh ang e ,ani lo ania🫢. Thil dang pawh kan la sawi zel ang, mahse khawpui nun chungchang hi chiang takin i hre hmasa ang u.
✅Khawpui Nun Pawimawhna (The Significance of Urbanism):
Khawpuite hi mipui tamna hmun mai an ni lo. Ei leh bara intodelh bakah, sumdawnna dang (industry, trade, etc.) a thang chhoh hian, khawpuia cheng MIPUITE tan a tangkai thin. Khawpui sumdawnnaah chuan ei leh bar siam bakah, sumdawnna, bungraw siamna leh rawngbawl hna te a tel thin. Chuvangin, khawpuia chengte chuan anmahni chauhvin an intodelh thei tawh lo a, mi dang (khawpui emaw, town emaw) thil siam emaw, an rawngbawlna emaw ah te an intanpui tawn thin. An inzawm tlat a ni. Entirnan, lung ker hna thiam tak pakhat chuan bronze hmanrua a mamawh a, chu chu amah chauhvin a siam thei lo a, seal siamna tura lung rawng chi hrang hrang pawh khawi atanga lak tur nge a hre hek lo: a 'thiam bikna' chu lung ker a ni a, sumdawnna a ni lo. Bronze hmanrua siamtu pawhin rangkachak leh tin lak tur chu amah chauhvin a zawng chhuak bik lo. Chu bakah, fuel atan meihawl (charcoal )a mamawh reng bawk. Hna insem hi khawpui nun chhinchhiahna a ni.
Chu bakah, mipui inrelbawlna fel tak a awm bawk tur a ni. Thingrem, rangkachak, lung chi hrang hrang, etc., hi hmun hrang hrang atangin khawpui bungraw siamtute tan a lo thleng thin. Chuvangin, sumdawnna leh bungraw dahkhawlna fel tak a mamawh a ni. Khua(town) atangin khawpuiah buh leh ei leh bar dangte an rawn thawn thin a, ei leh barte chu dahkhawl leh semchhuah a ngai thin. Chu bakah, hna hrang hrang inzawmkhawm a ngai a ni: seal cuuter tan lung chauh ni lovin, bronze hmanrua leh pots te pawh a awm bawk tur ani. Thilchiang deuh mai chu hetiang inrelbawlnaah hian mi thenkhatin thu an pe a, mi dangten an zawm a, khawpui sumdawnnaah hian ziaka chhinchhiahna neih a ngai fo thin tih hi.
📝Important facts:
He nu lu hi Uruk khuaah kum 3000 BCE hma khan marble var hmanga an ker ani. A mit leh a hmul te chu lapis lazuli (pawl) leh shell (var) leh bitumen (dum) hmanga chei a ni maithei. A lu chungah hian hmanrua (ornament) tan hmun ruak a awm a ni maithei. He lem hi khawvela hriat lar tak ani a, a hmui, a khabe leh a biang te an chei dan mawi tak avangin ngaihsan a hlawh hle. Tin, lung khawng tak, hmun hla tak atanga lakluh hmanga siam a ni.
Q.I hria em?🤔
Mesopotamia khawpui hmasa berte chu Bronze Age, c.3000 BCE vel atang tawhin an awm tawh a. Bronze hi copper leh tin belhkhawm a ni. Bronze hman theih nan hian heng metalte hi hmun hla tak tak atanga lakluh a ngai thin. Metal hmanruate hi thingrem siam uluk nan, lung seal ker nan, bungrua chei nana shell tan nan te a pawimawh hle. Mesopotamia ralthuamte pawh bronze tho an ni.
✅Khawpuia bungrua(goods) ken luh dan:
Mesopotamia ramah ei tur a tam hle chungin, a leilung hausakna (mineral resources) erawh a tlem. A chhim lam hmun tam zawkah chuan hmanraw siamna tur lung, seal siamna tur lung leh lunghlu te a awm lo; Iraq rama date-palm leh poplar thing te chu tawlailir, tawlailir ke emaw lawng emaw siamna atan a tha tawk lo; tin, hmanraw siamna tur metal, ipte emaw cheibawlna thil dang emaw pawh a awm hek lo. Chuvangin, an puan te leh an thil chin tam tak te chu Turkey leh Iran ram atanga thing, copper, tin, silver, gold, shell leh lung chi hrang hrang te nen an inthleng thin niin a lang a, a nih loh chuan Gulf tuipui kama mi te nen an inthleng thin a ni. Heng ram hnung lamah te hian leilung hausakna chu a awm a, mahse, huan siamna atan hmun a tlem hle thung. Inthleng tawnna regular tak neih theih nan chuan ram danga zin turte buatsaihsakna leh inthleng tawnna te kaihruai tur social organisation neih a ngai a, chu chu chhim Mesopotamia mite'n bul an tan ani.
Kut hna(agriculture), sumdawnna leh rawngbawlna bakah, khawpui thang tur chuan bungraw phurh kual dan tha (efficient transport) neih pawh a pawimawh hle. Buhfai emaw charcoal emaw pack, animal emaw bullock cart hmanga khawpuia phurh luh nan hun a heh lutuk emaw, ran chaw atan sum a heh lutuk emaw anih chuan, khawpui economy chu a ding thei dawn lo ani. Bungraw phurh man tlawm ber chu, khawi hmunah pawh, tui hmanga phurh hi a ni. Buhfai ipte phur lawng emaw barge emaw chu luia luang tui chakna leh/emaw thli chakna hmanga nawr kal theih a ni a, mahse, ranin bungraw an phurh chuan anmahni pawh chaw an mamawh a ni. Mesopotamia hmasang hun laia lui te leh natural channel te chu khawpui lian leh te inkara bungraw phurh kualna kawngpui ber a ni a, a hnu lama Mari khawpui chanchin kan hriat theihna turah pawh Euphrates lui chu 'world route' a nih zia a chiang hle ang.
✅Ziak dan lo Chhuah dan
Khawtlang zawng zawngah hian tawng theihnghilh theih loh, a ri atanga a awmzia hriat theihna a awm vek a. Hei hi verbal communication a ani. Ziak pawh hi verbal communication tho a ni, mahse, dan dang hretin. Ziak emaw script emaw kan sawi apiangin, tawng ri te chu hmuh theih sign hmanga lantir theihna kan ti thei ang.
Mesopotamia a tablet hmasa ber, kum 3200 BCE vela an ziahah chuan, thlalak sign ang leh number te a chuang a. Heng hi Uruk khawpuia temple atanga ken chhuah emaw sem chhuah emaw bungraw chi hrang hrang, bawng, sangha, chhang, etc. list 5,000 vel a ni. Thilchiang deuh chu, khawpui nunah chuan transaction te chu hun hrang hrangah a thleng a, mi tam tak leh bungraw chi hrang hrang a tel tlat avangin, khawtlangin transaction record vawn that an mamawh tana ziah hi an lo hmang tan a ni.
Mesopotamia mite chuan hlum(clay) phekah thu an ziak thin. Lehkha ziaktu (scribe) chuan hlum chu a ti huh a, a kut khing khat a ,a chelh theih tawk turin a siam thin.
A chhung leh pawn chu uluk takin a chul mam thin. Thil hriam hmangin, a sir zawnga zei in, a la huh lai chuan a chul mam tawhsa chungah chuan 'cuneiform' (kil thuma inziak) chhinchhiahna a nemkai thin. Nisa ah pho in, a ro hnu chuan, hlum chu a khawng thin a, bel ang maiin a khawng var thin.
Kum 2600 BCE bawr velah chuan, lehkha ziak chu cuneiform a lo ni a, a tawng chu Sumerian a ni. Lehkha ziak hi record khawl nan mai bakah, dictionary siam nan, ram insiam chawp chungchangah dan ang thliar nan, lal thiltih ropuite hrilhfiah nan, leh lal dangte'n an siam danglam tawh dan hrang hrang puan chhuah nan an hmang thin. Sumerian, Mesopotamia tawng hmasa ber hriat theih chu, kum 2400 BCE hnuah Akkadian tawngin zawi zawiin a luahlan thin. Akkadian tawnga cuneiform ziak chu first century CE thleng, kum 2,000 chuang an la hmang chhunzawm zel.
Q.Do you know?
🤔A clay tablet written on both sides in cuneiform.It is a mathematical exercise you can see a triangle and lines across the triangle on the top of the obverse side. You can see that the letters have been pressed into the clay.
🤔Cuneiform is derived from the Latin words cuneus, meaning 'wedge and forma, meaning 'shape.
✅Lehkha Ziak Dan
Cuneiform chhinchhiahna awm chu consonant emaw vowel pakhatah emaw a ni lo (entirnan English alphabet a 'm' emaw 'a' ang chi), syllable (entirnan: -put-or-la-or-in-) a ni zawk. Chuvangin, Mesopotamia lehkha ziaktuin a neih chhinchhiahna chu Zir tur tam tak an nei a, hlum phek huh lai chu a ro hmain an ziak hman tur a ni. Chuvangin, hlum a ziah hi thiamna sang tak ani a, a pawimawh zawkah chuan, a tawng hmang ri system chu hmuh theihin an siam chhuak thei hi hlawhtlinna ropui tak a ni.
📝Lehkhachhiar thiamna
Mesopotamia mite zingah chuan tlem te chauh lehkha chhiar leh ziak thiam an awm. Zir tur sign tam tak a awm mai bakah, chung sign tam tak chu a harsa hlawm. Lal pakhat lehkha chhiar thiam a awm chuan, a hmingthan tirnaah an ziak ngei ngei thin! A tam zawkah chuan, lehkha ziah hian tawng an sawi dan a lantir thin.
Official pakhat lehkha chu lal hnenah chhiar chhuahsak tur a ni thin. Chuvangin, heti hian a bul an tan thin:
Ka pu A hnenah, sawi rawh: I rawngbawltu B chuan heti hian a ti: ... Ka hna min pek chu ka zo tawh
Siam chungchang hla thawnthu sei tak chu heti hian a tawp:
'Heng changte hi hriat reng tur a ni a, upa zawkin zirtir rawh se;
mi fing leh zir miin sawi ho rawh se;
pa in a fapa te hnenah sawi nawn rawh se:
beram vengtu beng (pawh) hawnsak rawh se.'
✅Lehkhaziak hman dan
Khawpui nun, sumdawnna leh lehkha ziah inzawmna chu Sumer hla thawnthu sei takah Enmerkar, Uruk hruaitu hmasa berte zinga mi chungchangah a lang chiang hle. Mesopotamia tradition-ah chuan, Uruk hi khawpui ropui ber, The City tia hriat lar a ni thin.
Enmerkar hi Sumer sumdawnna hmasa ber siamtu nen an sawi kawp thin: hla thawnthu chuan a sawi danin, hmanlai khan, 'sumdawnna hriat a la ni lo'. Enmerkar chuan a khawpui biak in chei nan lapis lazuli leh metal man to a duh a, a chanchinbu hruaitu chu Aratta rama hla tak hruaitu hnenah a tir. Chanchinbu hruaitu chuan lal thu chu a zawm. Zanah chuan arsi hmangin a kal a. Chhunah chuan van Pathian ni hmangin a kal thin.
Chanchinbu hruaitu chuan Aratta hruaitu hnen atangin lapis lazuli emaw silver emaw a hmu thei lo a, Uruk lal atanga vaukhanna leh thutiam keng chungin rei tak a kal let leh a ngai. A tawp berah chuan, Thu thawn tu chuan 'ka atangin a sawi'. Thu zawng zawng chu a sawi pawlh vek. Chutah, Enmerkar chuan a kutah clay tablet a siam a, thu chu a ziak thla ta a. Chutih hunlai chuan, clay chungah thu ziah thlak a la awm ngai lo.
📝Southern Mesopotamia-a khawpui lo chhuah dan: Temple leh Lal te:
Kum 5000 BCE atang khan, Southern Mesopotamia-ah hian chenna hmun (settlements) a lo awm tan a. Heng chenna hmun thenkhat atang hian khawpui hmasa ber te chu an lo chhuak a ni. Heng khawpuite hi chi hrang hrang an ni: temple (pathian biak in) kianga lo awm chho hret hret te; sumdawnna hmunpui anga lo awm te; leh lal khawpui (imperial cities) te an ni. A hmasa pahnih chauh hi heta sawi tur chu a ni.
A tir lama cheng hmasa te (an lo chhuahna hmun hriat loh) chuan an khuaa hmun thenkhat thlan bikah te hian temple an sa a, an siam tha thin a. Hriat theih chinah temple hmasa ber chu unbaked bricks (raw brick) hmanga siam biak in te tak te ani. Temple te hi pathian hrang hrang te chenna a ni thin: Ur khaw Moon God (thla pathian) te, emaw Inanna, Love and War Goddess (hmangaihna leh indona pathian hmeichhia) te chenna a ni thin. Brick hmanga sak an nih avangin temple te hi an lo lian chho zel a, kawtzawl zau tak vela pindan tam tak neiin. A tir lama mi thenkhat chu in pa ngai ang mai an ni maithei, temple chu pathian in a nih avangin. Mahse temple te chuan an pawn bang lamah chuan a chhuah leh luh na an nei a, chu chu in pa ngai chuan a nei ngai lo.
Tempura chu pathian biakna hmunpui ani: An pathian hnenah chuan mipuiin buh, bawnghnute , leh sangha te an rawn hlan thin (a tir lama temple thenkhat chhuatah chuan sangha ruh a tam em em thin). Pathian chu lo neihna hmun, sangha manna hmun, leh ran vulhna hmun zawng zawng neitu a ni bawk. Hun lo kal zelah chuan, thil siam chhuah (entirnan, hriak sawr, buh chawh, hrui hrual, leh woolen puan tah) te chu temple-ah bawk an ti thin. Chhungkua aia sang zawka thil siam chhuah hna kai hruaitu, sumdawng mi thawh tir tu, leh buh sem chhuah leh pek te, ran te, chhang te, beer te, sangha te, leh a dang dang te ziaka chhinchhiahtu an ni a, temple chu an lo zauh chho zela, khawpui chhunga pawimawh ber a lo ni ta a ni. Mahse thil dang pakhat pawh a awm bawk.
Leilung thatna chungchangah pawh, lo neihna chuan harsatna a nei thin. Euphrates lui tui luanna a,tui let (flood) chuan thlai a chim pil thin a, thenkhatin a luanna hmun a thlak hlawk bawk thin. Archaeological record in a tarlan angin, Mesopotamia chanchinah chuan khuate hi an sawn kual reng thin. Mihring siam harsatna pawh a awm bawk. Chulai hmuna mite cheng thin te chuan a hnuai lama channel tui lakna chu an lo lama an lo theh luh tam lutuk chuan a hnuai lama khua te chu tui lovin an awm thei a. An channel tui lakna te chu an lo tifai tha lo a nih chuan a hnuai lama tui luang tur chu a dal thei bawk a. Chuvang chuan Mesopotamia ram hmasa lamah chuan ram leh tui chungchangah indona a awm fo thin a ni.
Khawvelah indona a awm reng a nih chuan, indonaa hlawhtling hruaitute chuan an hnungzuitute chu an thil hlu lakkhawm te chu an pe thei a, an hnehsakho te chu an vengtu emaw an chhiahhlawh atan an hmang thei a ni. Chuvang chuan an thu neihna leh an hmingthatna chu an tipung thei a ni. Chutiang indona hruaitute chu vawiinah an awm a, naktukah an awm lo thei a ni, chutih hunah chuan chutiang hruaitute chuan khawtlang hmasawnna atan thil thar an siam thei a ni. Hun a lo kal zel a, hlawhtlina hruaitute chuan Pathian hnenah thil hlu an hlan thin a, chuvang chuan khawtlang biak in te chu an tifai thin a ni. Pathian leh khawtlang hmasawnna atan lung hlu leh thil hlu te chu an la khawm a, biak in sum lakluh leh chhuah te chu uluk takin an chhinchhiah thin a ni. Enmerkar chanchin a, hla chuan a tarlang a, hei hian lal chu hmingthatna leh khawtlang hruai nih theihna a pe a ni.
Hruaitute chuan khua leh tui te chu an bulah an awm tir a, chuvang chuan sipai te chu hmanhmawh takin an siam thei a ni. Chuvangin, mipui te chu an himin an awm thei a ni. Uruk-ah chuan, biak in khawpui hmasa berah chuan, sipai te leh an hnehsakte lem te chu kan hmu a, uluk taka an chhui hnuah chuan, kum 3000 BCE velah chuan, Uruk chu hectare 250 vela lianin a lian hle a, Mohenjo-daro aiin a lian zawk a, khaw thenkhat chu an lo awm lo a ni.
Mipui inthlak thlengna nasa tak a awm a. Uruk khawpui pawhin bang humhimna an nei hma hle. He hmun hi kum 4200 BCE atanga 400 CE vel thleng luah reng a ni a, kum 2800 BCE velah chuan hectare 400 zeta zauvah a thang tawh a ni.
Indonaa man te leh khaw mipuite chu biak in tan emaw, lal tan chauh emaw hnathawkin an awm a. Hei hi, lo neih hmasat aiin, tih tur a ni. Hnathawk tura dah te chu an hlawh atan bungraw thenkhat pek an ni. Hlawh list za tam tak hmuh a ni a, chungah chuan mi hming bulah buh, puan, emaw, hriak emaw an hmuh zat ziak a ni. Biak in pakhat sak nan hian mi 1,500 in ni khatah darkar 10 an thawk a, kum nga an thawk a ngai hial nia ngaih a ni.
Lal ten mi te chu lung emaw, metal rawng chi hrang hrang emaw la turin, brick siam tur emaw, biak in sa turin ,brick rem tur emaw, hmun hla tak atanga bungrua la turin an tirh avangin, kum 3000 BCE vel khan Uruk-ah hian thiamna thar a piang chhuak a. Bronze hmanrua te chu hna hrang hrang thawh nan hman tan a ni. Architect te chuan brick atanga column siam dan an thiam a chhan chu, hall lian tak tak chhuat chhawng rit phur zo tur thing hman tlak a awm lo ani.
Mi za tam tak chu clay cone siam tur leh kang turin an thawk a, chung chu biak in bangah rawng hrang hrang hmanga chulhin an thun a, mosaic mawi tak a lo piang chhuak a ni. Sculpture lamah pawh, thiamna sang tak an nei a, clay awlsam taka hmuh theih ani loh avangin, lung import-ah an nei a ni (import-lalut). Tin, khawpui economy tana pawimawh tak, potter's wheel (bel siamna khawl) chu hmuh chhuah a ni a. Rei tak hnuah, he khawl hian potter's workshop te chu bel inang chiah chiah tam tak 'mass produce' thei turin a pui ta a ni.
The Seal - An Urban Artefact
In India, early stone seals were stamped. In Mesopotamia until the end of the first millennium BCT, cylindrical stone seals, pierced down the centre, were fitted with a stick and rolled over wet clay so that a continuous picture was created. They were carved by very skilled craftsmen, and sometimes carry writing: the name of the owner, his god, his official position, etc. A seal could be rolled on clay covering the string knot of a cloth package or the mouth of a pot, keeping the contents safe. When rolled on a letter written on a clay tablet, it became a mark of authenticity. So the seal was the mark of a city dweller's role in public life.
📝Khawpuia Nun
Kan hmuh tak chu hotu sang an lo piang chhuak tih hi a ni: khawtlang a tlemtein hausakna tam tak an nei a ni. He thil hi Ur khuaa lal leh lalnu thenkhat te ruang an phumnaa hausakna ropui tak tak (lunghlu, rangkachak bel, thing hmanrua var shell leh lapis lazuli an phumna, rangkachak chemte, etc.) te hian a ti chiang hle. Mahse, mipui pangngai te nun dan chu engtin nge ni ang?
Dan lehkha te (buaina, ro khawm chungchang, etc.) atang hian kan hria a, Mesopotamia khawtlangah chuan chhungkua te an awm ho thin a, mahse pasal nei tawh fapa leh a chhungkua chu a nu leh pa nen an la awm ho fo thin. Pa chu chhungkaw lu a ni. Inneih dan chungchang tlem kan hria. Inneih duh thu an puang a, mo nu leh pa ten inneih remtihna an pe thin. Chumi hnuah, mopa chhungtein mo chhungte hnenah thilpek an pe thin.
mihringte. Nupui an inneih hian, an pahnihin thilpek an inpe tawn a, an eiho va, biak inah thil an hlan thin. A nupuite nuin a rawn hruai dawnin, nupui hmeichhia zawk chu a pain ro a pe ve thin. Pa in, ran rual, lo, etc., chu fapaten an chang thin.
Ur khua, an laihchhuah hmasak ber zing ami hi i en ang u. Ur hi kum 1930 chho khan an lai chhuak a, in pangngai te chu an lai chhuak vek ani. Kawtthler zim leh kawi tak tak te hian lirthei lian chi an lut theih loh zia a lantir a. Buh leh thingzai ipte te chu sabengtungin an phur thin. Kawtthler zim leh kawi tak tak te leh in hmun ruak inkawih rem lo tak tak te hian khaw plan an neih loh zia a lantir bawk. Mohenjo-daro khawpuiah kan hmuh ang chi kawtthler luang tui tlem te pawh a awm lo. Tui luanna leh hlum pipe te chu Ur in chhung kawtlaiah an hmu zawk a, a chhuat chu a chhung lamah a hniam a, tui luanna pipe te chu kawtlai chhungah an dah lut a ni awm e. Hei hi ruah sur hnuah kawtthler chu a balh lutuk lohna tur a ni.
Nimahsela, mite chuan an bawlhhlawh zawng zawng chu kawtthlerah an theh chhuak a, an rap pil zel mai thin niin a lang! Hei hian a entir chu kawtthler chu a sang chho zel a, hun rei tak hnuah in kawngka bul te pawh an sa sang tual tual a, chuti chuan ruah sur hnuah chhungah bal a luang lut thei lo thin. Eng chu tukverh atanga lut lovin, kawtlai lama kawngka inhawng atangin a lut thin: hei hian chhungkaw zalenna pawh a pe bawk. In chungchangah thawnthu an nei nual a, Ur khua omen tablet-ah pawh an ziak: kawngka bul sang hian hausakna a thlen; in kawngka hma an inhmachhawn loh chuan vannei; mahse, in kawngka pui chu pawn lamah a inhawng (chhung lamah ni lovin) chuan, nupui chu a pasal tan a hreawm a ni ang!
Ur khawpuiah thlanmual a awm a, chutah chuan lalte leh mi pangngai thlan te an hmu a, mahse, mi tlem te chu in pangngai chhuat hnuaiah an phum mai zel ani.
📝Ran vulhna hmun vela sumdawnna khawpui
Kum 2000 BCE hnuah Mari khawpui chu a ding chhuak a. Map 2-ah khan Mari khawpui hi agriculture tha tak awmna, chhim lam phaizawlah a ding lo va, Euphrates lui hnar lamah a ding zawk tih in lo hmu tawh ang. Map 3-ah hian colour hmanga tihdanglam a ni a, he hmunah hian agriculture leh ran vulhna chu hnai te tea kalpui a ni tih a lang. Mari ram thenkhatah chuan farmer leh pastoralist an awm dun a, mahse a ram hmun lian zawk chu beram leh kel vulhna atan hman a ni zawk.
Ran vulhtute chuan an ran note, chheez, savun leh sa te chu buh, metal hmanrua, etc., nen an thleng tawn thin a, ran in a, ek te pawh farmer tan a hlu hle. Chutih rualin, buaina a awm thei bawk. Beram vengtu chuan a ran rual chu leilet kaltlangin a tui in tir thei a, chu chuan thlai a tichhe thei. Ran vulhtute chu an kal kual theih avangin agricultural khu te an run thei a, an bungraw dah khawl an tihchhiat sak thei.
Mesopotamian history chhungin, chhim thlaler hmun hrang hrang atangin nomadic communities-te chu agricultural hmun hluiah an lut thin. Beram vengtute chuan nipui laiin an ran rual chu leilet awmna area-ah an rawn hruai lut thin. Chutiang groups-te chu ran vulhtu, buh sengtu, emaw hlawhfa/sipai hna thawk angin an rawn lut a, thenkhat chu an hausa a, an awm nghet thin. Thenkhat chuan rorelna chelh theihna an nei hial a. Chung zingah chuan Akkadians, Amorites, Assyrians leh Aramaeans te an tel. Mari lal te chu Amorites an ni a, an incheina chu original inhabitants te nen a inang lo va, Mesopotamian pathian te chauh ni lo, Mari-ah pawh Dagan, steppe pathian tan temple an siam hial. Chuvangin Mesopotamian society leh culture chu mi hrang hrang leh culture hrang hrang tan a inzawm a, he civilisation thatna chhan pawh hi a in pawlh theih vang hi a ni mai thei.
A warrior holding a long spear and a wicker shield. Note the dress, typical of Amorites, and different from that of the Sumerian warrior shown on p. 18. This picture was incised on shell, c.2600 все.
📝Important facts
Lal Zimrilim (1810-1760 BCE) hunlaia Mari Lal In
Mari lal in ropui tak hi lal chhungkaw chenna hmun, sawrkar hmunpui, leh bungraw siamna hmun, a bikin tangkarua man to siamna hmun a ni a. Chu lal in chu a hunlaiin a lar hle a, lal te tak te pakhat chu Mari lal, Zimrilim-a thianpa lehkha kenin, a hmu chak em avangin north Syria atangin a lo kal hial a ni. Nitin chaw ei tur list atangin lal chaw dawhkan atan nitin chaw tam tak pek thin a ni tih a hriat theih: chhangphut, chhang, sa, sangha, theitui, beer leh uain te a ni. A chaw ei thin chu mi dang tam tak nen, kawt zawl 106, hmunah emaw, a chhehvelah emaw a ni awm e. Lal in plan atang hian kawngkhar pakhat chauh, chhim lamah a awm tih i hmu ang. Kawt zawl zau tak tak, 131 ang chite chu nalh takin chei ani. Lal chuan ram dang mi palai te leh a mite chu 132-ah, bang lem ziak awmna pindan, tlawhtute ngaihnawm ti taka en theihna hmunah a lo hmu thin ang. Lal in chu hmun zau tak, pindan 260 awmna, hectare 2.4 zeta zau a ni.
Euphrates kama awm, trade atana hmun remchang tak, thing, copper, tin, oil, wine, leh thil dang dang te chu south atanga Turkey, Syria leh Lebanon rama mineral ngah hmun thlengin Euphrates kam ah lawng hmangin an phur thin. Grinding stones, thing, leh wine leh oil jars phur lawngte chu Mari-ah an ding thin, southern cities pana an kalna kawngah. He town a officer-te hian lawngah lutin , cargo an endik thin (river boat pakhat chuan wine jar 300 a phur thei), leh thil man atanga sawm a pakhat an la thin, lawngin tui an zawh hma in. Barley chu special grain boats hmanga phurh ani. A pawimawh ber, tablets ah hian copper chu 'Alashiya', Cyprus island, copper a hmingthang, atanga a lo kal thu an sawi a, tin pawh trade item a ni. Bronze chu tools leh weapons atana industrial material pawimawh ber a nih avangin, he trade hi a pawimawh hle a ni. Chuvangin, Mari kingdom chu military lama chak lo mahse, a hausa hle a ni.
📝Mesopotamian Towns Excavating:
Today, Mesopotamian excavators have much higher standards of accuracy and care in recording than in the old days, so that few dig huge areas the way Ur was excavated. Moreover, few archaeologists have the funds to employ large teams of excavators. Thus, the mode of obtaining data has changed.
Take the small town at Abu Salabikh, about 10 hectares in area in 2500 BCE with a population less than 10,000. The outlines of walls were at first traced by scraping surfaces. This involves scraping off the top few millimetres of the mound with the sharp and wide end of a shovel or other tool. While the soil underneath was still slightly moist, the archaeologist could make out different colours, textures and lines of brick walls or pits or other features. A few houses that were discovered were excavated. The archaeologists also sieved through tons of earth to recover plant and animal remains, and in the process identified many species of plants and animals and found large quantities of charred fish bones that had been swept out on to the streets. Plant seeds and fibre remained after dung cakes had been burned as fuel and thus kitchens were identified. Living rooms were those with fewer traces. Because they found the teeth of very young pigs on the streets, archaeologists concluded that pigs must have roamed freely here as in any other Mesopotamian town. In fact, one house burial contained some pig bones - the dead person must have been given some pork for his nourishment in the afterlife! The archaeologists also made microscopic studies of room floors to decide which rooms in a house were roofed (with poplar logs, palm leaves, straw, etc.) and which were open to the sky.
📝Mesopotamia Khawpui Culture(hnam zia)
NMesopotamia mite chuan khawpui nun an ngai hlu a, chutah chuan hnam hrang hrang, ziarang hrang hrang nei an chengho thin. Indona avanga khawpuite a chhiat hnu pawhin, an hla-ah an la hre reng thin. Mesopotamia mite'n an khawpuite an chhuangzia min hriattir tu ber pakhat chu Gilgamesh Epic tawpnaah hian a lang chiang hle a, hei hi tablet(hlum phek) sawm leh pahniha ziah a ni. Gilgamesh hi Enmerkar hnuah Uruk khawpui roreltu a ni a, mi ropui tak, hmun hla tak tak thlenga mite hneh thei a ni. Amaherawhchu, a thianpa a thih khan a mangang hle a. Chu veleh, thi theih lohna thuruk zawn chhuah tumin khawvel hualvel tu tui te chu kal tlangin a zawnga (boat hmangin anih hmel). A beih chiam hnuah Gilgamesh chu a hlawhchham a, Uruk-ah a kir leh a. Chutah chuan, khawpui bangah vel ah chuan a vei tawn chhen mai a, a lungngaihna a theihnghilh phah a. Amah ngeiin a siam, an bang bul (foundation) chaktak chu a en a, a ngaihtuah a. Uruk khawpui bangah chuan a thil tum ropui leh beihna thawnthu chu a tawp ta a ni. Gilgamesh chuan a thih dawn pawhin a fate'n an la dam chhuah tur thu a sawi lo, hnam hruaitu dangte ang chuan. A mite'n khawpui an lo din tawh chu a ngaihtuah a, chumi chu thil chu a thlamuan a ni. Ziaka Thawnthu ngaihnawm tak takte hi thusawiin thehdarh theih mah se, science chuan ziak a mamawh a, chu chu thlahtu lehkha zir mite'n an chhiar a, an belhchhah zel theih nan. Mesopotamia mite'n khawvel hnena an hnungzui ziarang ropui ber pawh chu hun chhiar dan leh mathematics an thiam hi a ni awm e. Kum 1800 BCE bawr vela mi te chu hlum phek ah te hian puntirna leh semna (multiplication and division) chhut dan, square leh square-root chhut dan, leh compound interest chhut dan te a awm a. 2-a square root chu hetiang hian an pe:
1+24/60+51/60²+10/60³
Hei hi i chhut chhuak anih chuan, a chhanna chu 1.41421296 a ni tih i hria ang, a chhanna dik tak 1.41421356 nen a inang chiah lo deuh mai pawh a. An hun lai ngaihtuah chuan an thiamzia a lang. Zirlaite chuan hetiang harsatna te hi an chinfel a ngai thin: field zau zawng eng emaw zat hi tui in lo khat ta se; tui leng thei zat volume chhut chhuak rawh, tih te a ni. Kum hi thla 12-a then, chu chu thla in, lei a hual dan a zirin; thla hi kar li-a then; ni hi darkar 24-a then; leh darkar hi minute 60-a then – heng kan nitin nuntawng a kan hman thin zawng zawng hi – Mesopotamia mite hnen atanga lo kal a ni. Heng hun then dan te hi Alexander hnungzuitute'n an hmang chhunzawm a, chutah atangin Roman khawvelah, Islam khawvelah, leh a hnuah medieval Europe-ah thehdarh a ni (hetiang a thehdarh a nih dan kan zir zel ang next chapter ah). Ni leh thla eclipse a awm apiangin, a awm hun chu kum, thla leh ni a zirin an ziak theihnghilh ngai lo. Chutiang bawkin, zan lama arsi leh constellation awm dan pawh an ziak vek thin.
Heng Mesopotamia hlawhtlinna ropui tak takte hi ziak leh chhiar theihna leh khawpui sikul dinhmun, zirlaiten ziak tawh hmasate an chhiar a, an copy theihna tel lo chuan a theih hauh lo vang. Tin, chutah chuan hna thawk tur ni lovin, an hmasate hna chhunzawm thei tur thiamna nei mi an zirtir thin a ni.
📝Lehkhabu-in Hmasa( An early library):
Iron Age lai khan, hmar lama Assiria-mite chuan lalram an din a, a ropui lai ber (BCE 720 leh 610 inkar) chuan Egypt thlengin a zau a ni. Ram economy chu midang chunga innghat, thawk tur leh chaw, ran, thir leh kut themthiam thil dangte mipui tam tak atanga la thin ani. Assiria lal ropuite, pem lut an ni, chuan chhim lam, Babylonia chu hnam zia pawimawh berah an ngai a, an lal hnuhnung ber, Assurbanipal (BCE 668-627) chuan a khawpui, Nineveh hmar lamah chuan lehkhabu in (library) a khawr ani. Chanchin, hla thu, awmzia hrilhfiahna, arsi hriatna, fak hla leh hla dangte chu tablet(hlum phek thil ziah nan a an hman thin kha o) atanga khawn khawm turin nasa takin hma a la a ni. A lehkha ziaktute chu chhim lamah tablet hlui zawng turin a tir ani. Chhim lama lehkha ziaktute chu sikulah zirtir an nih avangin, chutah chuan tablet tam tak copy turin an zirtir a, Babylonia khawpuiah chuan tablet tam tak an la khawm a, chu chu a thang chhuak ta a ni. Sumerian tawng chu BCE 1800 hnuah tawng a nih tawh loh chungin, sikulah zirtir chhunzawm zel a ni, tawngkam hrilhfiahna, chhinchhiahna list, tawng hnih (Sumerian leh Akkadian) tablet, etc. hmangin. Chuvangin, BCE 650-ah pawh, BCE 2000 vela ziak tawh cuneiform tablet-te chu hriatthiam theih a ni a, Assurbanipal-a mite chuan tablet hlui emaw a copy emaw chu khawiah nge an zawng ang tih an hria ani.
Thuziak pawimawh tak tak, Epic of Gilgamesh angte chu copy a ni a, a copy-tu chuan a hming leh ni a ziak a ni. Tablet thenkhat chu Assurbanipal-a hming chawiin a tawp a ni:
'Kei, Assurbanipal, khawvel lal, Assiria lal, pathiante chuan finna nasa tak min pe a, thiamna reilote chhunga hmuh theih loh hriatna nei thei, pathiante finna chu tablet-ah ka ziak a... Tin, tablet-te chu ka endik a, ka khaikhin a ni. Nakina ka pathian, Nabu, Nineveh-a biak in library-ah chuan ka dah a, ka damna leh ka thlarau damna turin, leh ka lal thutphah dinngheh nan...'
A pawimawh zawk chu, cataloguing a awm a ni: tablet bawm chu lei label a awm ang a, chutah chuan: 'X-a ziak, ramhuaite hnawh chhuah chungchang tablet n zat' tih a ni ang. Assurbanipal-a library-ah chuan thuziak 1,000 vel a awm a, tablet 30,000 vel tlingin, subject hrang hrangin an then ani.
📝Check your Performance here:
1. Why do we say that it was not natural fertility and high levels of food production that were the causes of early urbanisation?
2. Which of the following were necessary conditions and which the causes, of early urbanisation, and which would you say were the outcome of the growth of cities:
(a) highly productive agriculture,
(b) water transport,
(c) the lack of metal
and stone,
(d) the division of labour,
(e) the use of seals,
(f) the military power of kings that made labour compulsory?
3. Why were mobile animal herders not necessarily a threat to town life?
4. Why would the early temple have been much like a house?
